The net zero challenge: feeling is believing

热浪星期一:2022年7月18日。我和Tisha Egashira为来自爱达荷大学的10名建筑系学生做了午餐。他们在牛津上暑期班，我邀请他们到我的生态屋吃午饭，这样他们就可以避开热浪中的正午高温。13点30分到达，当他们从36°C的室外走到21°C的我的餐厅时，脸上的宽慰显而易见。“谢天谢地，你们有空调!”一名学生说。“不，”我回答说，“我设计这座房子是为了抵御热浪，我会告诉你我是如何做到的。”

Most of us remember where we were during extreme weather events. Many of the Idaho students had lived through the late June 2021 Heat Dome in Idaho when temperatures soared over 40°C. On June 29th 2021 in nearby Washington state, temperatures in Spokane, Ephrata and Omak reached their all-time records at 43°C, 46°C and 47 °C respectively. Some students coped by hanging wet sheets over windows and others left for cooler climes. In Spokane the utility company ran rolling blackouts across the city to cope with peak demand and at least twenty people died of heat stress, some in their own homes.

…if anyone tells you that only the top 25-50mm of thermal mass is ‘active’ and useful for storing heat or coolth, they are trying to sell you a machine

People in the north-west USA and British Columbia were not trained to deal with such temperatures as they are in, say Phoenix Arizona, where they even park air-conditioned buses across the city as cool refuges. In India’s hottest city, Ahmadabad, they have an advanced heatwave plan including inter-agency public awareness and community outreach programmes to keep people alive during the extreme heat. If you want to hear more on heatwave planning join us at our conference onComfort at the Extremesin Edinburgh on the 5th and 6th of September with speakers from both those cities.

那么，我是如何设计牛津生态屋的，让它在这样的热浪中室内温度比室外低15摄氏度呢?主要是利用大量的热质量并对其进行管理。今年7月13日，媒体警告我们17日到19日之间会有热浪，所以我开始用有效的夜间降温措施把我的大房子里的热量排出去。晚上的时候，我打开了房子周围所有的小通风口和窗户(为了安全起见，倾斜和转向模式朝向户外)，还有屋顶上的三扇VELUX窗户。房屋成为凉爽的夜间通道，从结构中吸收热量，直到7月18日房屋整体温度下降到20°C到23°C之间。

白天，房子是关着的，凉爽的空气储存在可爱的厚墙里。如果有人告诉你，只有顶部25-50mm的热质量是“活跃的”，对存储热量或冷却有用，他们是想卖给你一台机器或一个轻量级的结构。就是这么简单。为了计算一个建筑的地板、天花板和内部分区所需的整体热质量，可以吸收和释放热量的裸露表面的面积是关键。这些表面不能被地毯、橱柜、书柜和家具覆盖。如果可能的话，内部质量必须明显避免在夏天直接增加，以避免加热。

A problem when designing for high mass walls is that many of the steady state simulation programmes – including the Passivhaus planning package - simply do not model either mass or natural ventilation accurately, let alone dynamically. In fact, many models are set up in such a way tp prioritise the U-value of a wall. This is the wrong answer for weather extremes and particularly during power outages.

We are told by some ‘experts’ that an indoor temperature of 26°C is around the highest temperature that humans can consider comfortable. But what about the billions of people all around the world who have been living happily and comfortably for millennia in temperatures way above that? But feeling is believing, and many of you on 19th July 2022 might have come into spaces from 37°C outdoors into 26°C indoors and thought this is cool!

Thermal comfort is a cultural construct and one that changes over time. People adapt to the temperatures that are the norm. If you live in a warmer country or building you are comfortable at temperatures higher than if you live in cooler places. It is globally detrimental that international comfort standards are written by middle aged white men in suits from Europe or the USA who are part of the HVAC establishment. The comfort standards and regulations they produce mandate narrow indoor comfort zones that only mechanical conditioning can produce. This drives soaring energy use and increases costs and greenhouse gas emissions from buildings to meet often unnecessary heating and cooling temperatures. And of course, increasing sales in HVAC equipment in the process.

Traditional buildings worked in symbiosis with their occupants, co-evolving lifestyles and new construction elements in tandem to improve their climatic performance and experiences. In the cool climates of Scandinavia their culture now favours buildings that are conditioned all year around. But even there they are now suffering significant overheating in many modern buildings. In France people typically heat buildings in winter and naturally ventilate them for the rest of the year. In southern Spain houses were designed to be naturally ventilated all year and could consequently get a bit cold in winter. Many then used a ‘brasero’, an under-table heater where they sat with a blanket over the table and their legs, similar to the ‘kotatsu’ of Japan.

Buildings from now on should contain at least one cool and one hot climate refuge

Two important lessons can be learnt from traditional buildings in a heating world. Thermal mass is very effective in extreme weather for dampening the temperature swings indoors (load shaving) in both seasons and to store energy from night cooling in summer, solar energy and radiant sources in winter (load shifting).

给一个人供暖或制冷比给整栋建筑供暖或制冷更经济。让每个人都安装整栋建筑的供热和制冷系统，如热泵或氢锅炉，这对富人来说是可以接受的，但对买不起这些系统的燃油穷人来说，这就太过分了。

从现在开始，我们的目标必须是首先设计出最不需要加热或冷却的建筑，然后允许居住者使用低技术、低能耗、以人为中心的舒适解决方案，如当地的风扇或加热器。这必须在考虑昂贵的整体建筑解决方案之前。这种热弹性建筑的一个关键特征是它们包含一系列不同的微气候——通常对着太阳更温暖，对着太阳更凉爽。从现在开始，建筑应该至少有一个凉爽的和一个炎热的气候避难所。

Local vernacular buildings have much to teach us. Jake Hacker, Stephen Belcher and Richenda Connell wrote an excellent piece for the UK Climate Impacts Programme way back in 2005 calledBeating the Heat．他们建议我们从代理气候中学习。到2080年，伦敦的气候就会像马赛一样，所以我们应该向法国南部学习，如何为2050年+的气候设计今天的伦敦建筑。

Bjarne Olesen, ex-president of ASHRAE explained to me that in the future buildings will have to be heated and cooled only when absolutely necessary and naturally ventilated for the rest of the year. So how many of you out there are designing for that to happen?

It is a growing imperative because buildings are responsible for over 40% of global emissions from electricity generation. To return every building to being capable of being naturally ventilated a radical revision of the Building Regulations is essential. Can anyone see that on the horizon when the HVAC industry literally writes those very regulations? Isn’t it time for architecture to come into its own again by championing good climatic design at the very least and taking back ownership of building performance? The net zero targets will never be reached if the main solution to emissions reductions is a heat pump or a hydrogen boiler. It is time to get real.

Architects now too often assume that they are not responsible for the thermal performance of buildings

Houston - we have many problems - like you did in the Texan Ice Storm of February 2021 when 280 people died of cold. For a start many architects design buildings with no, few or barely opening windows. Secondly, fashion dictates that homes have large open-plan living areas with kitchen, dining room and seating areas in large, expensive to heat and easy to overheat spaces. There are no thermal refuges anymore, no snugs or cool rooms. People often retire to their bedrooms nowadays to get and stay affordably warm in winter, on top of,or in their beds.

At the heart of the problem is the ‘affiliation bias’ that is patently inherent in the fact that the building regulations on thermal comfort and ventilation are written by HVAC engineers, reflecting the interests of an industry that is paid according to how much equipment they put into buildings. Where is the incentive to require effective windows and natural ventilation systems? Or the use of low energy personal comfort technologies? Why is one profession able to mandate that a homeowner has to buy this or that technology when they may well be able to get by with individual room systems that are only used when the room is occupied? The list of drivers of high emissions from homes goes on and on.

Education is siloed. HVAC engineers are not typically taught how to design for thermal mass and natural ventilation. They only know how to size HVAC systems. Architects now too often assume that they are not responsible for the thermal performance of buildings and are cowed by the regulations and some of the pseudo-scientific rationales behind them. They are not equipped to argue with technical consultants and understand the real issues behind effective marketing campaigns on single issues.

当室外40°C，电网失效的时候，谁愿意被困在一个高度绝缘的热盒子里，窗户都没有打开呢?

One trope swallowed whole by designers was that solar systems are simply ‘eco-bling’ rather than a way to minimise imported grid energy into a home. Another recent narrative is that buildings should be lightweight because of the embodied energy of a structure on construction is all that matters in calculating its emissions - an approach that favours the timber industry and developers of cheap housing. In reality it is the total energy over fifty or sixty years that really matters, including the running costs of the building over time. And who wants to be stuck in a highly insulated hot box with no opening windows when it is 40°C outside and the grid fails so the mechanical ventilation and heat recovery’ system ceases to work? Madness.

My 28 year-old Ecohouse keeps me safely warm in winter and cool in summer. I do not need to install expensive air-conditioning because it stays deliciously cool during this and future heatwaves. It boasts the first solar roof in Britain, built in 1995, that still works brilliantly. The Ecohouse over the last twelve months used 9 kWh/m²of imported gas and electricity, in a 232m²six-bedroom home, while simultaneously exporting 1655 kWh solar electricity back to the grid.

Perhaps nothing I write here will persuade designers not to design open plan spaces with glass walls made up of patio doors. Many could not consider designing good solid walls instead, preferably with filled cavities punctuated interestingly with useful windows. That is perhaps until they themselves suffer from extreme heat indoors in their own homes. Until they cannot pay their own energy bills, or a loved one is badly impacted by extreme heat. Perhaps then they might admit that their profession has ceded too much power around building performance to the HVAC engineers and the regulations they generate.

As designers we need to “feel the difference to believe it”

Maybe once they are made accountable for the costs and emissions of the buildings they design, they will “wake up and count the costs and the coffins” resulting from their own designs. Who knows what the future holds? This July the heatwave lasted only three days. In July 2003 when 70,000 died in the heatwave across Europe, many in their own homes, the heat lasted for ten days.

I welcomed Tisha Egashira and Bruce Hagland’s Idaho students into my Oxford Ecohouse during a heat wave on the 18th July 2022 when it was 36°C outside, and 21°C indoors without mechanical systems. Just maybe, those students we made lunch for will never feel the same way about thermal mass again. They will have ‘got it’. None of us know our own limits till we cross over them and look back. That one visit may well have changed their professional lives forever and perhaps saved actual lives in the future, because actually, as designers we need to “feel the difference to believe it”.